Roasting is a heat process that turns coffee into the fragrant, dark brown beans with which we are most familiar. Before being roasted, the beans were stored green, a state in which they can be kept without loss of quality or taste. Once roasted, however, they should be used as quickly as possible before the fresh roast flavor begins to diminish.

Roasting is a technical skill which approaches an art form.  It takes years of training to become an expert roaster with the ability to 'read' the beans and make decisions with split second timing. The difference between perfectly roasted coffee and a ruined batch can be a matter of seconds.

Roasting brings out the aroma and flavor that is locked inside the green coffee beans.  A green bean has none of the characteristics of a roasted bean.  It is soft and spongy to the bite and smells green, almost 'grassy.'  Roasting causes numerous chemical changes to take place as the beans are rapidly brought to very high temperatures. When they reach the peak of perfection, they are quickly cooled to stop the process. Roasted beans smell like coffee, and weigh less because the moisture has been roasted out. They are crunchy to the bite, ready to be ground and brewed.

Most roasters have specialized names for their favored roasts and there is very little industry standardization.  This can cause a great deal of confusion for the buyer. But in general, roasts fall into one of four color categories—light, medium, medium-dark or dark.  The perfect roast is a subjective choice that is sometimes determined by national preference or geographic location

 

The Roasts

Within the four color categories, you are likely to find common roasts as listed below.  But it is a good idea to ask before you buy.  There can be a world of difference between roasts!

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Light Roasts

Light brown in color. This roast is generally preferred for milder coffee varieties. There will be no oil on the surface of these beans, because they are not roasted long enough for the oils to break through to the surface

• Light City
• Half City
• Cinnamon
• New England

---

Medium Roasts

Medium brown in color with a stronger flavor,  and a non-oily surface. This roast is often referred to as the American roast because it is generally preferred in the United States.

• City
• American
• Breakfast

---

Medium—Dark Roasts

Rich, dark color with some oil on the surface and with a slight bittersweet aftertaste

• FullCity

---

Dark Roasts

Shiny black beans with a oily surface and a pronounced bitterness. The darker the roast, the less acidity will be found in the coffee beverage.  Dark roast coffees run from slightly dark to charred and the names are often used interchangeably which can be very confusing.  Be sure to check your beans before you buy them!

• High
• Continental
• New Orleans
• European
• Espresso
• Viennese
• Italian
• French
   

Measuring nearly 30 square meters, The Awakening mosaic recently unveiled in Gorky Park, Moscow, set a new world record for the largest coffee bean mosaic.

It’s not very often that you get to see artworks as impressive as the one created by Russian artist Arkadi Kim. He and his team spent around two weeks working on the impressive mosaic, weighing the coffee beans, roasting them to achieve the desired color tones and placing them at just the right spot on the giant panel set up in Gorky Park. Believe it or not, this unique piece of art is made of 1 million coffee beans, weighing an impressive 180 kg (397 pounds). Entitled “The Awakening”, it shows the detailed visage of a girl and alluring coffee aroma making its way to her nose.

Photo: Itar-Tass

Arkadi Kim’s coffee bean mosaic was acknowledged by Russia’s Book of Records, beating the previous title holder by about 5 square meters. It was created in December 2011, in Armenia, and weighed “only” 140 kilograms. The artist behind the former largest coffee bean mosaic was non other than world-renown artist Saimir Strati.

Photo: Mikhail Metzel / AP

The beautiful coffee bean artwork will remain in Gorky park until July 1st, when it will be dismantled and the beans sold to a processing plant. To create a proper atmosphere, local authorities have also set up a cozy cafe and coffee tasting area for visitors.

Photo: Mikhail Metzel / AP

Photo: Itar-Tass

Photo: Itar-Tass

Green Coffee Pure Review

In today’s modern society, most people can’t find the time to exercise and cook healthy foods because of their busy lifestyles. Sadly, most of these people are categorized as being overweight or obese.

However, with the help of modern science, a top-notch weight loss product was created to help those who want to lose weight. This product, Green Coffee Pure, is one of the best selling weight loss supplements in the market that actually does what it claims to do. Green Coffee Pure has caught the attention of a lot of people who want to get rid of their extra weight as it has been proven to be safe and effective.

Green Coffee Bean Extract Comes From Unroasted Coffee Beans

Green Coffee Pure supplement contains pure green coffee bean extract, which is one of the essential ingredients in the product that promotes fast weight loss. This extract is derived from raw unroasted green coffee beans, which are thoroughly inspected for its quality before undergoing the extraction process. After obtaining the concentrated extract, it is then mixed with other essential ingredients to further enhance and boost its weight loss effects.

Green Coffee Extract Contains Chlorogenic Acid

The active compound found in green coffee extract is chlorogenic acid. This substance is found in various fruits including apples, cherries, kiwi fruits, and other plants. However, the major source of this acid is found in green coffee beans. Chlorogenic acid significantly lowers the amount of glucose that is being released by the liver, so that the body must access its stored supplies of glucose in fat cells for energy to fuel the body. The fat cells are broken up and its contents are converted into glucose to reduce the size of each fat cell in the body. As a result, the high concentration of chlorogenic acid effectively clears out the excess fat in the body’s cells to significantly lower body weight.

Caffeine Content in Green Coffee Pure

Unlike most coffee products, Green Coffee Pure contains only a small amount of caffeine so that it will not cause nervousness or jitters like a normal cup of coffee would cause.

Other Ingredients in Green Coffee Pure

Green Coffee Pure contains 7 ingredients that work together to create a healthier, slimmer body with green coffee bean extract being the main ingredient for weight loss. One of the ingredients in this weight loss supplement is African mango, which has been proven to be a powerful appetite suppressant.

African mango actually helps curb hunger and reduce cravings, thereby preventing overeating and binge eating.

Acai berries and green tea extract are its other ingredients that make this product more appealing because they are loaded with antioxidants to help fight deadly free radicals that cause aging and other serious health problems. Other ingredients include kelp and apple cider vinegar that aid in digestive health and urinary tract health.

Green Coffee Pure also contains grapefruit extract to alkalize the body to stabilize acidic PH levels for health rejuvenation. With all of these health benefits offered by Green Coffee Pure, it is definitely a product that is worth looking into.

Amaretto Coffee

Ingredients:

1 ½ c Warm Water
1/3 c Amaretto
1 tb Instant Coffee Crystals
Dessert Topping from a pressurized can

How To:

In a 2-cup measure stir together water and instant coffee crystals. Micro-cook uncovered,
on 100% power for about 4 minutes or just till steaming hot. Stir in Amaretto. Serve in
mugs. Top each mug of coffee mixture with some dessert topping.

Alexander Espresso

Ingredients:

• 1 cup Cold water
• 2 tb Ground espresso coffee
• ½ Cinnamon stick (3″ long)
• 4 ts Crème de Cacao
• 2 ts Brandy
• 2 tb Whipping cream, chilled
• Grated semisweet chocolate to garnish

How To:
Break out your espresso machine for this one or just make really strong coffee with a small
amount of water. Break cinnamon stick into small pieces and add to hot espresso. Allow to
cool for 1 minute. Add crème de cacao and brandy, and stir gently. Pour into cute
demitasse cups. Whip the cream, and float some cream on top of each cup. For looks,
garnish with grated chocolate or fancy chocolate curls. Multiply proportions by six and it’s
perfect for a party. Serves 2

Canadian Coffee

Ingredients:

¼ c Maple syrup; pure
½ c Rye whiskey
3 c Coffee; hot, black, double strength
Topping:
¾ c Whipping cream
4 ts Maple syrup; pure

How To:

Topping: Whip cream with maple syrup just up until soft mounds; set aside.
Divide maple syrup and whiskey among 4 warmed heatproof glass mugs or goblets.
Pour in coffee to 1 inch of top; spoon topping over coffee.

Alpine Carnival

Ingredients:

2 tb Instant coffee
1 ts Vanilla
2 tb Brown sugar
1 ts Water
1 ½ c Boiling water
½ c Whipping cream, whipped

How To:

Divide instant coffee and vanilla evenly between two Spanish coffee glasses. In a small
heavy saucepan, dissolve sugar in the teaspoon of water. Over medium heat, stir dissolved
sugar until it reaches a full boil. Immediately remove from heat and stir in boiling water.
Divide sugar mixture between coffee glasses and top with a dollop of whipped cream.
Makes 2 x 6 oz servings.

Amaretto Coffee / Variation

Ingredients:

¾ c Warm water
3 tb Amaretto
1 ½ ts Instant coffee crystals
Dessert topping; * see note

How To:

* Dessert topping should be in a pressurized can.
In a non-metal mug stir together water and instant coffee crystals. Micro-cook, uncovered,
on 100% power about 1 1/2 minutes or just till mixture is steaming hot. Stir in Amaretto.
Top with pressurized dessert topping.

Black Forest Coffee

Ingredients:

6 oz Fresh brewed coffee
2 tb Chocolate syrup
1 tb Maraschino cherry juice
Whipped cream
Shaved chocolate/chips
Maraschino cherries

How To:
Combine coffee, chocolate syrup, and cherry juice in a cup; mix well. Top with whipped
cream, chocolate shavings and a cherry.

Arabian Coffee

Ingredients:

1/2 litre (about 1 pint) water
3 tablespoons coffee
3 tablespoons (or more) sugar
1/4 teaspoon cinnamon
1/4 teaspoon Cardamom
1 teaspoon vanilla or vanilla sugar

How To:

Mix all ingredients in a saucepan and heat until foam gathers on top. Do not pass through
a filter. Stir it up before you serve it.

Buttered Rum Coffee

Ingredients:

1/3 c Ground coffee
1/4 ts Freshly ground nutmeg
1 1/4 ts Rum extract
1/8 ts Liquid butter flavouring

How To:

Place coffee and nutmeg in a blender or food processor fitted with a steel blade. In a cup,
combine remaining ingredients. With processor running, add flavorings. Stop processor
and scrape sides of container with a spatula. Process 10 seconds longer. Store in a
refrigerator. Yields: Mix for eight 6-ounce servings

Cafe Au Lait ( Coffee with Milk )

Ingredients:

1 c Milk
1 c Light cream
3 tb Instant coffee
2 c Boiling water

How To:

Over low heat or in double boiler, heat milk and cream till hot. Meanwhile, dissolve coffee
in boiling water. Before serving, beat milk mixture with rotary beater-till foamy. Pour milk
mixture into one warmed pitcher or server, and coffee in another. To serve: Fill cups from
both pitchers at the same time, making the streams meet en route. Makes 6 servings.

Louisiana Cafe Au Lait

Ingredients:

2 c Milk
Sugar
1 c Louisiana coffee with chicory

How To:
Put milk in saucepan; bring to a boil.
Pour hot freshly brewed coffee and milk simultaneously into cups; sweeten with sugar to
taste.

A Timeline of the Discovery and Advances in Instant (Soluble) Coffee

1771 - The first “instant coffee” is made in Britain. Referred to as a “coffee compound” it was granted a patent by the British government.

1853 – The first American instant coffee product is created. During the Civil War experimental “cakes” of instant coffee are given to soldiers.

1901 – A Japanese man named Dr. Sartori Kato, who is a chemist in Chicago, Illinois, develops the first successful method of creating a stable soluble coffee powder, or instant coffee – just add water! Kato initially develops the technique  to make instant tea, and then applies it to coffee. In 1903 he gets a patent for the method.

1909 - For the first time, instant coffee is mass produced. This occurs in America and is done by an American inventor who immigrated from Belgium.

His name is George Constant Louis Washington (1871-1946), and he makes the product after seeing, when he was in Guatemala, coffee powder that had deposited on the spout of a silver coffee pot.

Though Washington receives a patent for what will be come the first mass-produced instant coffee, many considered the taste quite unsatisfactory. Washington names it Red E Coffee and begins marketing it in 1909.

An American soldier writes this letter from the trenches: “I am very happy despite the rats, the rain, the mud, the draughts [sic], the roar of the cannon and the scream of shells. It takes only a minute to light my little oil heater and make some George Washington Coffee…Every night I offer up a special petition to the health and well-being of Mr. Washington.”

1914-1918 – Instant coffee becomes widely popular, particularly with the U.S. military as they buy all available supplies. During World War I the soldiers call it a “cup of George.” When the troops return home they continue to desire the product.

1930 – The Brazilian Coffee Institute asks the chairman of the Nestles company to create a flavorful soluble coffee product (e.g., “instant coffee”) to help Brazil deal with its abundant coffee surplus, and also possibly increase overall coffee sales. Some liquid and crystallized coffee products are available at this time but their flavors are considered very inferior. Nestle begins several years of intense research to solve the problems.

1937 – Nestle scientist Max Morgenthaler develops a new instant coffee making technique at Nestle’s Switzerland research center laboratory. The new product is named Nescafe, which comes from combining Nestle and cafe.

1938, April 1 - Nestle begins selling Nescafe in Switzerland, and also in 1938 they begin making it at their London factory.

Their new instant coffee process involves drying equal amounts of coffee extract and soluble carbohydrates, and the technique produces a better tasting instant coffee which quickly becomes a popular product. The U.S. military becomes a major buyer.

1939-1945 – During World War II instant coffee is very popular with the soldiers. Nescafe and other brands of instant coffee supply large quantities to a growing market. During one year of the war the U.S. military buys more than one million cases of Nescafe – their entire annual output of Nestle’s U.S. plant.

1943 - George Constant Washington’s company is sold to American Home Products shortly before Washington passes away. The George Washington coffee brand continues until 1961, but George Washington Seasoning & Broth is still for sale today.

1950s - Coffee is the favorite beverage of teenagers listening to rock and roll at coffeehouses. Nestle introduces their new Blend 37 in 1955, providing a “continental taste.”

1954 – Nescafe develops a method to produce instant coffee using only coffee, having previously added carbohydrates for stabilization. The following year they introduce Nescafe Blend 37.

1960s - A better looking instant coffee is developed using a process called agglomeration, which involves steaming the instant coffee particles to get them to stick together in clumps. Unfortunately the second heating/drying cycle further hinders the coffee’s flavor.

As the method improves, freeze-drying becomes the preferred method of making instant coffee.

By espressocoffeeguide.com

Rare are the folks who do not look forward to their morning cup of coffee. Even if you do not drink coffee on a daily basis, you have to admit that there is something cosy, comforting and almost luxurious about drinking a cup of hot coffee. Nothing beats the aroma, and yes, nothing beats the coffee high. Not to mention that the health benefits of coffee are starting to be be discovered by the scientific community, thus giving us even more reason to maintain our coffee addictions.

Coffee is the the most popular beverage in the world bar water. Don’t think that’s possible? Here’s a news flash for you – coffee is the most prized commodity on the market, second only to oil. Billions of people start their day with coffee. Some to get their bowels moving, others to kickstart their sleepy brains in the morning, and definitely all for the unmistakable aroma and flavor that coffee imparts.

Now if you have been keeping abreast of health news and studies, then you know that coffee has received a lot of flack over the last couple of decades. The health benefits of coffee have been hotly debated, and they still are to date. Headlines scream that coffee is terrible for so and so health ailment or will raise your risk for some disease and you rue that you may have to quit coffee. But just a couple of weeks later, another study  raves about the health benefits of coffee and you are overjoyed that you do not have to give up coffee after all (not that you were really going to anyway).

It’s no surprise then that most people do not know if coffee is good or bad for them. Not that that minor detail is going to stop anyone from drinking coffee. But considering that coffee is probably a part of your daily routine, that you don’t ever plan on quitting, that there’s a coffee shop around every corner now, and that the world is becoming a more health-conscious place, perhaps it’s time to buckle down and figure out what exactly the health benefits of coffee are, if any.

Does Coffee Have Health Benefits?

Coffee lovers, rejoice! Coffee doesn’t just have health benefits, it’s actually a super-food! You probably don’t even want to know more beyond this, so eager are you to go make yourself a cuppa just to celebrate. But hang around for a few more minutes; some of the health benefits of coffee are truly worth learning about. Plus, you can use the following health benefits of coffee to counter any anti-coffee arguments.

A Natural Stimulant For the Body and Brain

But you know this already. The caffeine in coffee not only wakes you up in the morning but it can actually make you more alert, help you remember things better, and contribute to better productivity. Studies suggest that there may be a link between regular coffee-drinkers and a lower incidence of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia and Parkinson’s disease for this very same reason. Coffee accomplishes this amazing feat by stimulating your nervous system. This is why you must be careful to regulate your coffee intake throughout the day to between 2 and 4 cups, which is enough to get you the health benefits of coffee without harming you. Too much coffee will over-stimulate the nervous system and can lead to irritability, anxiety, and restlessness.

Coffee Acts As a Diuretic and Laxative

There’s a reason so many people need their coffee in the morning. Coffee stimulates the bowels, plus it flushes out the kidneys thus being responsible for frequent bathroom breaks. If you are constipated, coffee is a great way to get things moving.

Get Rid of Migraines With a Cuppa

You have probably experienced some of the health benefits of coffee for yourself. Here’s another one that you most likely already know about. If you have a headache or a migraine, a cup of coffee can make it disappear in just a few minutes. This is because coffee has analgesic properties in its caffeine content. In fact, take a look at the ingredients on some of the painkillers that you regularly pop and you will discover that caffeine is listed on at least a couple of them.

Health Benefits of Coffee Reduce the Risk of Major Diseases

Coffee has been linked negatively to the higher incidence of many prevalent health ailments. But after years of research, the prior claims have been proven false. The caffeine and antioxidants in coffee, in addition to hundreds of other compounds that change our body chemistry, actually have a range of health benefits which have the potential to prevent the onset of several major diseases.

• The high levels of antioxidants in coffee can cut your risk of certain forms ofcancer be almost half. According to studies so far, the cancers most likely to be prevented by coffee include prostate cancer, breast cancer, liver cancer and colon cancer. The flavonoids and phytoestrogens in coffee can prevent tumors from growing and spreading. The health benefits of coffee are constantly being investigated for their effectiveness against other cancers as well.

• Cancer is not the only disease that is affected so dramatically by the health benefits of coffee. You can even cut your risk of developing gallstones by 50% simply by sipping on a few cups of coffee a day  because of the xanthine content in coffee.

• The health benefits of coffee extend to protecting your heart as well. Research shows that you can cut your risk of developing cardiovascular disease by at least 25% by drinking coffee on a daily basis. Coffee has shown amazing health benefits in reducing the risk of arrhythmia and stoke.

• Diabetics or those at high risk of developing diabetes can also benefit from a couple of cups of java a day. Coffee contains chlorogoenic acid which can regulate blood sugar levels as well as increase insulin sensitivity. Both these effects contribute to lowering your risk of getting type 2 diabetes.

• The chlorogenic acid in coffee shows incredible health benefits for a damaged liver as well. So drinking coffee can prevent the onset of liver diseases like cirrhosis. Just 3 to 4 cups a day can reduce your risk of developing cirrhosis by 80%! Now that’s quite a feat for the little bean. But you cannot expect to reduce your risk if you continue to drink excessive amounts of alcohol – the cause of cirrhosis. Coffee can do wonders if you begin to take care of your body and health, but you cannot expect it to work miracles when you insist on abusing alcohol.

• As we have already seen earlier, the health benefits of coffee for the brain can reduce your risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. So stick to your daily coffee if you want to keep your wits about you when you are older.

• Coffee can help reduce the risk of as well as cure gout since it counteracts the uric acid build-up in the blood, which is what causes gout.

An Anti-aging Elixir

Antioxidants and caffeine, both of which are present in coffee in very high amounts, prevent cell damage and may be able to reverse the effects of aging. A cup of coffee a day can be a part of your beauty regimen as it prevents premature aging of cells, allows your body to repair damaged cells, and may help your skin to appear younger for longer.

Brings Relief to Asthmatics

A hot cup of coffee opens up the airways and allows for easier breathing. Asthma patients who drink coffee have 30% fewer symptoms than their non-coffee-drinking counterparts. You can thank the caffeine for the health benefits of coffee for asthma sufferers. So the next time you are having an asthma attack and the medication and inhalers do not help, down a cup of hot coffee so you can breathe easy again.

Health Benefits of Coffee for Weight Loss

Ah, the ever-popular debate. It seems that most foods nowadays are tested for their effects in weight management. Coffee has been too, and the results showed that coffee can improve your metabolism, thus allowing you to burn more calories. But this is not going to happen of you have an unhealthy diet. The health benefits of coffee for weight loss will only be apparent if you have an overall balanced lifestyle.

There is another way in which coffee may help with weight loss. If you are following an exercise routine, having a cup of coffee before your workout will make your body and mind alert and you are thus more likely to have a more focused workout than usual, working harder than you normally would for longer periods of time, in turn burning more calories to help you lose weight.

Coffee for Oral Health

Research conducted in 2002 concluded that coffee’s anti-bacterial properties can hep to prevent tooth decay and cavities by neutralizing the microorganisms that cause the damage. Coffee also has anti-adhesive properties, which means that when you drink coffee destructive microorganisms find it harder to stick to your teeth.

Contraindications of Coffee

OK, so the health benefits of coffee are amazing and you are breathing a sigh of relief that you do not have to give it up. But wait a minute. There have been other studies done that have talked about how bad coffee is for you. Those studies are conducted by scientists and food researchers of the same caliber as those offering evidence of the health benefits of coffee. And you have to be fair for the sake of you health to look at both sides of the argument.

• Anything in excess is going to have adverse results. If you are drinking seven to ten cups of coffee a day, you are more likely to suffer from side effects than see any health benefits of coffee. Stick to two maybe three cups a day and you should be fine.

• Coffee can cause sleeplessness. This is a rather obvious one. The caffeine boost is bound to keep you awake if you have coffee after 4 pm (or about 7 hours before bed time). Try a decaf version if you cannot do without coffee toward the end of the day.

• “Coffee makes you fat”  “Cut down on coffee to lose weight” How many times have you heard or read this? If nothing else can make you quit coffee, this one definitely will. But coffee in itself does not have many calories – only 5 a cup. What does have calories though is the sugar, milk and cream that you add to coffee to make it more palatable. The coffee bars in your neighborhood are notorious for their high-calories coffee delights. But these should be once-in-awhile treats rather than a daily affair or you will indeed pile on the pounds just like the research suggests. Stick to black – it’s the purest flavor and the mark of a true coffee lover.

• Lots of research has proven that coffee can aggravate heartburn because it is strong enough to trigger the secretion of the acids in your stomach. Too much coffee, especially black coffee, can indeed lead to heartburn, especially if you already suffer from ulcers, indigestion or other stomach problems.

• Since coffee is a diuretic, it may cause dehydration if you do not replenish your body with fluids after multiple bathroom trips.

• If you drink too much coffee – more than 5 cups a day – it can interfere with the optimal functioning of your body. Research reveals that caffeine does not allow your bones to absorb the nutrients from food, thus making them weaker and raising your risk for osteoporosis. But this may be countered by adding more milk to your coffee.

• Although no strong evidence exists, coffee is thought to increase the risk of miscarriage. This is why pregnant women are advised to reduce their coffee intake to just one cup a day.

• While coffee is good for your teeth, heavy coffee drinkers risk staining their teeth.

• Finally, coffee is addictive. There’s no doubt about this. If you try to quit you will experience withdrawal symptoms as if you were weaning yourself off a powerful drug. Those who have been drinking coffee for several years find that they need even more coffee to feel the buzz. This can lead to a higher coffee intake which will lead to all or some of the above side effects of coffee.

To drink or not to drink? – that is the question. While the side effects of coffee do indeed make you take pause, the health benefits of coffee are too numerous and encouraging to be ignored. However, moderation has never resulted in adversity. So go enjoy your cup of coffee without guilt or worry, but make sure you control your intake of this seductive brew.

Summary
Cardiovascular disease risk

Recent evidence suggests that there is no overall association between moderate coffee intake and coronary heart disease (CHD). In fact, habitual moderate coffee drinking has been associated with a lower risk of CHD in women.

In addition, there does appear to be a small inverse association between coffee drinking and risk of stroke in women only. This negative association is especially strong in women who are past smokers or who have never smoked.

Cardiovascular disease risk factors

The precise nature of the relationship between coffee intake and blood pressure is unclear.

Coffee constituents other than caffeine are responsible for the total and LDL-cholesterol raising effect of coffee. However, these constituents are found in boiled coffee and not filtered.

A small number of preliminary studies have shown a short-term effect of coffee on arterial dilation. Further studies are needed before conclusions can be drawn.

Although there is some evidence to suggest that high coffee intakes increase blood homocysteine, the relationship between high homocysteine levels and cardiovascular disease risk is unclear.

Mechanisms

The mechanisms underlying the associations seen between coffee consumption and reduced risk of stroke, and potential associations with risk factors for coronary heart disease (i.e. cholesterol and blood vessel dilation), need further investigation.

- It is likely that caffeine is not solely responsible for the effect.
- Other coffee constituents, such as cafestol, potassium and polyphenols, may also play a role.

Cardiovascular health

The scale of the issue

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is Europe’s number one killer responsible for 54% of all deaths in women and 43% of all deaths in men^[1]. In Europe alone, CVD is responsible for the deaths of 4.35 million people annually^[2] and costs the EU economy €192 billion Euros per year^[3].

A role for diet and lifestyle

Cardiovascular disease is a multi-factorial disease with a wide variety of risk factors, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking and high serum cholesterol. Heredity plays a role in coronary heart disease and stroke, but both are largely influenced by lifestyle factors such as diet, physical activity and smoking.

Coffee consumption and cardiovascular health

Regular coffee consumption does not increase risk of cardiovascular disease

A wide variety of studies, both large and small, have been carried out on both healthy participants and patients who already suffer from cardiovascular disease or one of its risk factors. Overall there is no evidence to suggest a negative effect of moderate coffee consumption on cardiovascular health.

Coffee consumption and coronary heart disease risk

A large meta-analysis of 21 studies published in 2009^[4] on coffee consumption and coronary heart disease risk found a large variation between the individual results of the studies reviewed. Overall, it did not find a statistically significant association between coffee drinking and long-term risk of coronary heart disease. However, habitual moderate coffee consumption was shown to be associated with a lower risk of heart disease in women.

Three further recent studies^{[5, 6, 7]} also saw no association between coffee consumption and risk of coronary heart disease. In fact, a Dutch study^[5] found the lowest risk in groups habitually consuming 2-3 cups of coffee a day.

In conclusion, the large majority of individual studies find no association between coffee consumption and coronary heart disease. However, there is considerable variation between the studies.

Coffee consumption does not increase risk of stroke

The largest study to look at coffee consumption and stroke, the US Nurses Health Study^[8], found a statistically significant inverse association between consumption of coffee and stroke incidence. This association was the strongest in the subgroup of former and non-smokers. However, these results have not been corroborated by other studies which have failed to find any associations between coffee intake and stroke incidence ^{[5, 6, 9]}.

Coffee consumption and cardiovascular disease risk factors

Coffee consumption and blood pressure

The precise nature of the relationship between coffee and blood pressure is still unclear; most evidence would suggest that regular intake of caffeinated coffee does not increase the risk of hypertension.

A large 2008 review^[10] of the effect of habitual coffee consumption on blood pressure showed that some studies found a protective effect of coffee whereas others found a small elevation in blood pressure (1-2 mmHg) with a coffee intake of about 5 cups a day compared with abstinence or consumption of decaffeinated coffee.

Coffee consumption and cholesterol – effect of brewing method

The overall evidence would indicate that coffee’s effect on cholesterol levels is largely dependent on the method of brewing. The coffee component cafestol, and to a lesser extent kahweol, raise the serum levels of both total and LDL-cholesterol^[11]. However, these components only pass into the brew in so-called ‘boiled’ coffee, but are retained in the filter paper in ‘filtered’ coffee.

A 2001 meta-analysis^[12] concluded that trials using filtered coffee demonstrated very little increase in serum cholesterol levels. Interestingly, a more recent study comparing the effects of no coffee versus 4 cups of filtered, and 8 cups of filtered, coffee per day found that filtered coffee raised both total and HDL-cholesterol levels somewhat^[13]. Further studies are required to definitively establish coffee’s effects on cholesterol.

Coffee consumption and blood flow

So far only small, short-term experiments have been carried out looking at the effects of coffee on flow-mediated dilation in the brachial artery^{[14, 15]}. These observed a 22% reduction in flow-mediated dilation after consumption of a cup of caffeinated espresso. Larger studies are required before any implications of this short-term vasoconstrictor effect can be assessed.

Coffee consumption and blood homocysteine

There is some evidence from intervention studies that high levels of coffee consumption (6 to 10 cups of coffee per day) increase blood homocysteine levels^{[16, 17]}. However, it is still unclear whether reducing high homocysteine levels will lead to a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. In addition, no causal relationship has been established between high blood homocysteine levels and cardiovascular disease^[18].

Patient studies – some limitations

Studies in patients with underlying disease conditions, from diabetes to myocardial infarction and hypertension, have shown a wide variety of results for the effects of coffee consumption on cardiovascular disease risk.

All the studies show that there are a great number of confounding factors at work which can potentially affect study results, including type of coffee given, genetics of participants and possible biochemical effects of other coffee components. Additionally, inherent difficulties in recruiting diseased participants can mean studies tend to have small numbers of subjects and ongoing patient treatment can interfere with trials. The primary value of in-patient studies will ultimately be in therapy development.

Potential mechanisms – beyond caffeine

In the past, it was thought that any effect of coffee on the cardiovascular system was likely to be due to caffeine. Many studies only actually tested for the effect of caffeine. Recently the picture has changed.

Boiled coffee’s effect of raising serum total and LDL-cholesterol levels is generally accepted to be due to the coffee oil components cafestol and kahweol. Additionally, studies have found that participants who abstain from, or are used to a low caffeine level, show a short-term rise in blood pressure when given a high caffeine dose in the form of caffeine capsules^[19]. This rise of 4 mmHg in this study is far higher than the 1-2 mmHg found with coffee in other studies. This would indicate that in habitual coffee consumers, more factors are involved than just caffeine. Many other substances in coffee, such as polyphenols, soluble fibre and potassium could also have biochemical effects.

Conclusion

The scientific evidence suggests that moderate coffee drinking does not increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. Although coffee consumption has been linked to small effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors, the mechanisms underlying these effects need further investigation.

References

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